Insulin

Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by pancreatic beta cells that regulates glucose uptake across skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and hepatic pathways. Dysregulation of insulin secretion or receptor sensitivity contributes to type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. Treatment protocols range from exogenous insulin injections in rapid-acting and long-acting formulations to oral hypoglycemic agents and GLP-1 receptor agonists. Proper dosing schedules, injection-site rotation, and continuous glucose monitoring reduce the risk of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemic episodes. Patients on insulin therapy require periodic HbA1c testing, renal panels, and lipid profiling to adjust therapeutic regimens safely.